MILTIADIS KYLINDREAS
Topographic map of Naples, indicating seven public housing projects (Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 32, folder 2, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University).
Charles F. Palmer, a successful real estate developer who pioneered public housing in Atlanta during the first half of the twentieth century, was as a controversial figure.[1] This story focuses on Palmer’s connections with fascist Italy during the 1930s, his trip to Naples and Rome in the summer of 1934, and on the knowledge about state-sponsored urban redevelopment and housing that he gained during his short stay there. I argue that, although Palmer was an American property developer who acted within the sociopolitical framework of New Deal Atlanta, he also admired the Italian fascist regime for its effective slum-clearance programs. First, I consider Palmer’s initial motivation for slum clearance in Atlanta and describe the struggles that he faced during the process. Second, I cover Palmer’s plan to travel to Italy, and analyze his strong desire to meet with Mussolini through his correspondence with Italian contacts. Third, I examine Palmer’s renunciation of the fascist regime in his book published after World War II, which marked a radical shift from his admiration just years before. Lastly, I assess Palmer’s knowledge of the massive slum-clearance projects that took place in Naples under the Mussolini regime through short articles from his scrapbooks and archival material.
Potential Profit & Inevitable Struggle
Palmer was president of the National Association of Building Owners and Managers starting in 1930.[2] He was also a privileged individual with strong connections within political and economic systems in the United States. A defining moment for Palmer was the passing of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) in 1933, which set up the Federal Administration of Public Works and provided over three billion dollars for various construction projects including low-cost housing and slum clearance.[3] Palmer realized that possible involvement in New Deal construction projects could be highly profitable for his real estate business. He immediately started searching in Atlanta for a suitable slum area to clear, and eventually chose Techwood Flats, a neighborhood he described as ‘‘the nine square blocks of squalor that lay along my route to and from business each day.’’[4]
Palmer and his partners struggled with several issues at Techwood, such as bureaucratic delays by the Public Works Administration (PWA) and strong opposition by Atlanta real estate owners and brokers.[5] The latter significantly delayed the progress of the project. Palmer had to travel to Washington, D.C. in 1934 and stay there for weeks to get the project back on track.[6] Thus, it could be argued that this situation led him to look for more efficient ways to carry out the Techwood Homes project. Palmer made plans to travel to Europe that summer, seeking innovative yet effective solutions for social housing.
“When in Italy”
Right after the approval of the proposed street closings on the Techwood site by the Atlanta City Planning Commission in March 1934, Charles Palmer and his wife Laura decided to visit several European countries over the coming summer [Figure 1].[7] The main goal of this ambitious trip was to gather information about European slum-clearance projects, and to gain the technical knowledge necessary to successfully carry out similar projects in the US. Palmer sought alternative models to address the severe difficulties with Techwood Homes that, from the outset, was plagued by delays and postponements.[8]
Figure 1: Letter from Charles F. Palmer to Clark Foreman, June 7, 1934 (Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 15, folder 7, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University).
One of the countries that the couple visited was Italy, ruled by the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. In his book Adventures of a Slum Fighter, Palmer admitted that he had met Mussolini in 1930 and noted that he had discussed his visit with the dictator with Franklin D. Roosevelt while he was still governor of New York. Palmer, however, did not mention anything about his intention to meet the dictator a second time.[9] Based on correspondence between Palmer and several Italian officials, like Attilio Bollati (Royal Italian Consul), it is clear that the Atlanta real estate executive actively sought to meet with Mussolini again during his trip in Italy in 1934 [Figures 2, 3]. In his letter to Bollati, Palmer stated that ‘‘we expect to be at the [Hotel] Russi until August 24th and I am hoping to have the privilege of another audience with Il Duce, if it can be arranged.’’[10] The meeting ultimately did not take place .
Figure 2: Letter (1/2) from Charles F. Palmer to Attilio Bollati, June 2, 1934 (Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 29, folder 4, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University).
Figure 3: Letter (2/2) from Charles F. Palmer to Attilio Bollati, June 2, 1934 (Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 29, folder 4, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University).
Although Palmer initially expressed a strong affection for the fascist regime of Italy and its slum-clearance projects in the 1930s, his attitude radically changed after Mussolini’s fall at the end of World War II. In the two chapters of his book about the slum-clearance initiatives in Naples and Rome, he does not mention his desire to meet the fascist dictator. On the contrary, Palmer rarely mentions Mussolini in the chapters, and at the same time, cunningly detaches himself from the fascist regime through critique.[11] In the book, Palmer argues that the massive spread of the slum-clearance initiatives in Italy was a clever way for the fascists to manipulate public opinion in order to stay in power.[12] Purportedly, after a meeting with Antonio Allievi, a contractor in Naples, Palmer wondered about Allievi’s political beliefs and, more specifically, whether he was a fascist or not, based on the fact that he omitted the fascist Roman numeral XII, while signing a book.[13] Moreover, Palmer purposefully ends the chapter about Rome (“Roman Circus”) by stating the following: ‘‘The Pontine was evidence that much could be done to help people who were badly housed. But it also showed me that great harm could come of it if done under a dictator.’’[14] Thus, Palmer demonstrates his detachment from fascism in a variety of ways in order to protect his own reputation. There is a long, suspicious gap between his trip to fascist Italy in 1934 and the publication of his book, Adventures of a Slum Fighter, in 1955. The archival letters written before and during his 1934 trip provide us with direct and timely information, and a more reliable source of evidence than Palmer’s book published after World War II. As a matter of fact, on June 5, 1934, Palmer writes to Marquis Pasquale Diana (Counsellor of the Royal Italian Embassy) that “It has been a real inspiration to keep abreast of the great stride your wonderful nation is making under the capable leadership of Il Duce’’ [Figures 4, 5].[15] This letter clearly demonstrates Palmer’s admiration for both the fascist regime and Mussolini. To determine whether Palmer actually embraced fascist ideals requires further investigation.
Figure 4: Letter (1/2) from Charles F. Palmer to Marquis Pasquale Diana, June 5, 1934 (Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 29, folder 4, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University).
Figure 5: Letter (2/2) from Charles F. Palmer to Marquis Pasquale Diana, June 5, 1934 (Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 29, folder 4, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University).
The Architectural Accomplishments of the Italian Fascist Regime that Charmed the “Slum Fighter”
During his 1934 stay in Italy, Palmer had the opportunity to meet with public officials, commissioners, and architects who had a great deal of experience enacting slum-clearance projects.[16] Taking into consideration the warm letters he sent to his Italian contacts, Palmer was clearly impressed by the organization and the effectiveness of the fascist regime in the realm of urban reconstruction.[17] For instance, on October 10, 1934, Palmer thanked Mrs. Crisci by stating the following: ‘‘… we carried away happy and inspiring memories of that day about the constructive work you are doing for the younger generations of Italy’’ [Figure 6].[18] In the same vein, on October 24, 1934, he wrote to Mr. and Mrs. Corlett that ‘‘we have followed with a great deal of interest the constructive leadership displayed by your wonderful country … and we are hoping to return again to resume our studies there’’ [Figure 7].[19] With these letters as evidence, it becomes apparent that Palmer’s goal was to utilize some version of this Italian expertise on the Techwood Homes project in Atlanta.
Figure 6: Letter from Charles F. Palmer to Anna Crisci, October 10, 1934 (Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 29, folder 4, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University).
Figure 7: Letter from Charles F. Palmer to Leonard Corlett and Mrs. Corlett, October 24, 1934 (Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 29, folder 4, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University).
The influence of the Italian fascist regime on Palmer can be seen in the scrapbooks that his wife Laura Palmer edited between 1933-1937. One scrapbook article, written on August 20, 1934, discusses Palmer’s visit to Italy and his investigation of Mussolini’s slum-clearance system. The article states that Palmer’s Italian report would be used as an example for US slum-clearance projects.[20] A May 02, 1933 letter from a counselor of the Italian Embassy likewise suggested to Palmer two books written by H.W. Schneider—Making the Fascist State and Italy Incorporated—noting that they would be useful to examine the origin and the main ideas of fascism [Figure 8].
Figure 8: Letter from the Counselor of the Royal Italian Embassy to Charles F. Palmer, May 2, 1933 (Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 29, folder 4, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University).
The essential connection between fascism and public housing in Italy as well as the massiveness of those ambitious initiatives can be seen in the Charles F. Palmer Papers held at Emory University’s Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library. A book published by the Italian architect Alberto Calza Bini (1881-1957) in 1927, entitled Il Fascismo per le Case del Popolo (Fascism for People’s Homes), demonstrates the dominance of fascism within the Italian sociopolitical and architectural framework [Figure 9]. The date of the book’s publication (1927) strongly indicates that Italians were already experts on slum clearance by 1934 when Palmer visited Naples and Rome. Additionally, a topographic map of Naples depicts seven housing projects and their spatial planning within the city [Figure 10]. What makes this initiative remarkable is not only the large number of the developments built simultaneously (seven), but also their wide distribution throughout Naples. For instance, housing project one is located at the center of the city and close to the port. Projects two, three, four, and five are found at the northeastern and southeastern parts of the city, respectively. Lastly, projects six and seven occupied the southwestern part of Naples. The map presented here again conveys that Italians had the technical knowledge to carry out public housing projects successfully. Palmer, who was seeking effective and profitable methods of slum clearance, must have been astonished by the scale of the architectural achievements of the Mussolini regime. Although Palmer detached himself from fascist Italy after World War II, as is clear from the Naples and Rome chapters from his later book, the projects were clearly influential to him. As previously mentioned, Palmer and his partners constantly had to deal with the unnecessary bureaucracy of the US government and opposition from Atlanta real estate owners. In contrast, the Mussolini regime’s ability to effectively carry out massive government-funded housing projects quickly demonstrated to Palmer what was needed to succeed in the Techwood Homes initiative.
Figure 9: Book about Fascism and public housing by the Italian architect Alberto Calza Bini (Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 73, folder 2, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University).
Figure 10: Topographic map of Naples, indicating seven public housing projects (Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 32, folder 2, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University).
In Adventures of a Slum Fighter, Palmer noted that “the Italians were able to solve it [the problem of housing people during slum demolition and reconstruction] through ‘decanting’ [which] gave us an example we could well use back home.”[21] In 1938, Palmer, the Atlanta Housing Authority chairman at that point, announced plans to rehouse the residents of the so-called slums based on the process that was developed in Naples. More specifically, and in terms of the procedure itself, the Atlanta Constitution described how the process of rehousing slum dwellers could work: “Atlanta will tear down one section of a slum area after moving the families in that area to other homes designated in advance in each instance. … This will proceed section by section … Then the people who were moved out originally will be moved back and the operation will be complete.”[22] This was not, in fact, the method used in Atlanta. Displaced families from the Tech Flats slum were left to fend for themselves to find new housing when demolition occurred, and as far as we know, none were accepted as tenants at Techwood. Nonetheless, the proposal by Palmer published in the Atlanta Constitution clearly indicates that the real estate developer attempted to use knowledge he had gained during his 1934 trip to fascist Italy for his housing project back in Atlanta.
Conclusion
After his two visits to Italy in 1930 and 1934, Palmer became fascinated by the Italian fascist regime and particularly its effective methods of slum-clearance projects in Rome and Naples. Additionally, he openly admired Mussolini, as a signed portrait of the dictator in Palmer’s archive illustrates. Palmer had strong connections not only within the US sociopolitical framework, but also throughout Europe. Was he a fascist himself, or was he exclusively interested in building influence and profit regardless of the means he used? After the end of World War II, Palmer did attempt to detach himself from fascist Italy by critiquing the dictatorship. This shift in position is evident in Adventures of a Slum Fighter, where Palmer makes several statements against the Mussolini regime. We can assume that this radical shift can be attributed to the outcome of World War II, in which Nazi Germany and fascist Italy were defeated by the Allies. Palmer, a US real estate developer, belonged to the winning side of the war: an open attraction to fascism was bad for business.
***
Miltiadis Kylindreas is a third-year Ph.D. student in the Art History Department at Emory University, specializing in ancient Greek architecture and archaeology.
https://emory.academia.edu/MiltiadisKylindreas
Keywords: Palmer, Techwood, Public Housing, Fascist Italy, Naples
Notes
[1] Lawrence Vale states that Palmer was ‘‘A real estate executive turned crusader for slum clearance, Palmer set Atlanta in the forefront of the public housing movement during the early 1930s, and subsequently served as the founding chairman of the Board of the Housing Authority of Atlanta from 1938-40, president of the National Association of Housing Officials.’’ See Lawrence J. Vale, Public Housing and the Design Politics of Twice-Cleared Communities (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2013), 44-45.
[2] Charles F. Palmer, Adventures of a Slum Fighter (Atlanta: Tupper and Love, 1955), 8.
[3] Ibid., 2.
[4] Ibid., 9.
[5] Ibid., 18.
[6] Ibid., 20-21.
[7] Vale, Public Housing and the Design Politics, 60, 62-63.
[8] Palmer, Adventures of a Slum Fighter, 17-21.
[9] Ibid., 49.
[10] Charles F. Palmer to Attilio Bollati, June 2, 1934, Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 29, folder 4, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University.
[11] Palmer, Adventures of a Slum Fighter, 48, 58.
[12] Ibid., 42.
[13] Ibid., 49.
[14] Ibid., 58.
[15] Charles F. Palmer to Marquis Pasquale Diana, June 5, 1934, Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 29, folder 4, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University.
[16] Ibid., 41-42.
[17] Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt’s America, Mussolini’s Italy, and Hitler’s Germany, 1933-1939 (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006), 143.
[18] Charles F. Palmer to Anna Crisci, October 10, 1934, Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 29, folder 4, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University.
[19] Charles F. Palmer to Leonard Corlett and Mrs. Corlett, October 24, 1934, Charles F. Palmer Papers, box 29, folder 4, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University.
[20] The scrapbook article discussing Palmer’s trip to Italy can be found in Charles F. Palmer Papers, OBV3, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, & Rare Book Library, Emory University.
[21] Palmer, Adventures of a Slum Fighter, 39-40.
[22] Vale, Public Housing and the Design Politics, 84.
CITATION
If you are citing this story, we recommend the following format using the Chicago Manual of Style:
Miltiadis Kylindreas, “Sins of a ‘‘Slum Fighter”: Charles Palmer & His Connections with Fascist Italy,” Atlanta Housing Interplay, ed. Christina E. Crawford, accessed [the date accessed], https://www.atlhousing.org/sins-of-a.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Charles F. Palmer papers, 1903-1973, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, & Rare Book Library, Emory University (Atlanta, Georgia)
Palmer, Charles F. Adventures of a Slum Fighter. Atlanta: Tupper and Love, Inc., 1955.
Schivelbusch, Wolfgang. Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt’s America, Mussolini’s Italy, and Hitler’s Germany, 1933-1939. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006.
Vale, Lawrence J. ‘‘Public Housing and Private Initiative: Developing Atlanta’s Techwood and Clark Howell Homes.’’ In Public Housing and the Design Politics of Twice-Cleared Communities, 39-89. Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press, 2013.